Events of 1918 in Quba. Part 2 Background

Killing people on the basis of ethnicity cannot be justified by anything, but it is even more frightening when people die during ethnic cleansing just because they are ethnically close to those who are considered to be the culprits of the killer’s troubles.

The events of 1918 on the entire territory of Azerbaijan are described as ethnic cleansing by historians, who say that the riots were part of ambitious plans of nationalists, who were seeking to maximize the reduction in the number of Muslim population in all regions of Azerbaijan. However, it is not entirely clear why the Armenian massacres of 1915 in the Ottoman Empire became the basis for the ethnic cleansing of Azerbaijanis in 1918.

Vestnik Kavkaza provides the historical documents on the events of March and their background.

In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, the Azerbaijani lands turned out to be in the center of attention of the Russian state. Russia needed sources of energy, which were numerous in southern regions of the Caucasus, especially in Azerbaijan. Conquering the Caspian coast, as the main step on the way to the Caucasus, and Central Asia was the main strategic goal of Peter the Great. In Spring 1722 the Russian Emperor headed to Astrakhan with a big army, In early summer 1723 Russian troops occupied Derbent, and on July 17th Russian military ships entered the Bay of Baku. In September 1723 Shah Tahmasla II signed a treaty with Russia, according to which the Russians promised to help him in fighting against the Afghanis, and the Shah gave Russia the lands of the Caspian coast from Derbent to Astrabad, including the territory of the semi-independent Quba Khanate. Surkhai-khan and Gadji Davud, who owned Quba at that time (as a part of Shirvan), declared that they were controlled by the Sultan’s Turkey, which started a war against Iran in 1723.

The Ottoman Empire was concerned about Russian successes in the Caspian region and sent its troops to the South Caucasus. They occupied Yerevan and Khamadan in 1724. On April 23th, 1724, Turkey and Russia signed the Treaty of Constantinople, according to which Turkey recognized the Caspian territories as Russian lands; while Russia approved Turkey’s occupation of Western Iran. In August 1727 the Turks occupied Ganja and Tebriz, in autumn they occupied Ardebil and Kazvin. In 1727 the Turks signed a treaty with Ashrafan, who had seized power in Isfahan. Turkey got not only all the lands which were required by the Treaty of Constantinople, but also Zendjan, Kazvin, Sultanie, Tehran, and even Huzistan. Thus, almost all the territory of Azerbaijan was occupied by Turkey, except for a strip of the Caspian lands which belonged to Russia, including territories of the Quba Khanate. In 1726 Russia recognized the law of inheritance of the Quba khans and appointed young Husein Ali Khan (son of Sultan Ahmed) to the position of the head of Quba. He took an oath of loyalty to Russia. (21)

There is a point of view that the event took place not in 1726 but 4 years earlier, with the participation of Peter the Great, who appointed 12-year-old Husein Ali to the position of Quba’s khan. (22) Russian sources pointed out that the Quban Khan was rather independent in his activities, he didn’t pay Russia and was only obliged to provide Russia with soldiers during military activities. (23) It was unknown how the history of the Quba Khanate would have developed, but a new person appeared in the political arena of Iran – a lively and talented commander, Nadir Kuli, who later became Nadir Shah Afshar. He “slightly delayed the process of establishing khanates in Azerbaijan, which was started under the Sefevids.” (24)

After decades of fighting, Nadir managed to return all the lands occupied by Russia and Turkey. In 1732 and 1735 Nadir signed peace treaties with Russia. Russian completely withdrew its troops from the Caspian lands of Azerbaijan. In 1734 Nadir destroyed Shemakha, as the city resisted him. The population resettled to Akhsa – New Shemakha. In 1736 he signed a peacemaking treaty with Turkey, and Turkey gave him all the territories which used to belong to Iran before 1722. Earlier in 1736 (January-March) Nadir organized a quriltai of “right people” and was elected Shah. The head of Karabakh, Ugurlu Khan Kadjar, didn’t agree with the elections and “later he lost 2/3 of his lands for this.” (25) All further events – punitive expeditions against free jaro-belokan communities and Dagestan (1741-43), the three-year war against Turkey (1743-46), an attempt to establish a fleet on the Caspian Sea – confirmed that the center of political events under Nadir-Shah (1736-1747) shifted to the territory of Azerbaijan again. “It couldn’t bring anything good for the Azerbaijani population. Its territory turned into a passable field for punitive expeditions which were sent by Nadir to Dagestan to fight against disobedient mountaineers, as well as a battlefield for fighting against rebels in Azerbaijan, primarily in Shirvan.” (26)

Unlike the leaders of Shirvan, Husein Ali Khan in Quba conducted a more moderate policy under the feudal chaos of political ambitions of Iran and Turkey and occupational plans of Russia. He preferred not to spoil relations with anyone and showed his good intentions towards Russia and Iran. He was rewarded for this: during the first expedition to Azerbaijan, Nadir gave Husein Ali Khan control over Salyan (However, soon Salyan was taken back, and Nadir ordered Husein Ali Khan to rule Quba only). (27) At that period, Quba was a small medieval town; its population dealt with crafts and trade. The appearance of Great Quba, according to academician Berezin, was predetermined by the fact that Hudat had lost its importance as an administrative center. In 1735 the capital of the khanate was shifted to Quba, where the majority of Hudat’s population moved. There were versions that the capital was shifted in 1747 or 1748. (28) Thus, Quba became the capital of the khanate in 1735 under Husein Ali Khan. The khanate also included hundreds of small villages which were involved in agriculture, gardening, and cattle breeding. Despite relevant political stability in Quba Khanate, in the 1740s in neighboring regions – Shirvan, Dagestan, Karabakh, Sheki – military hostilities between Badir Shah and local commanders didn’t stop, as the local authorities didn’t want to obey the central Iranian power. In 1743 a major people’s riot began in Shirvan. Nadir Shah managed to suppress it, only due to usage of artillery; as a result, New Shemakha – Akhsa, the center of the riot, was occupied. In November Nadir Shah and 15 thousand soldiers undertook an expedition against the Sheki residents, who rebelled under the leadership of Hadji Chelebi Khan. And only in February 1745, after two years of Sheki’s siege, did Chelebi Khan have to obey Nadir’s power. However, all these hostilities damaged the Iranian state as well.

In the last years of the reign of Nadir Shah, his state became heavily impoverished. In desperate need of funds, Nadir Shah began to publish more and more decrees on new emergency taxes, which were the major impetus for an armed uprising against the regime, as the result that "Ganja, Samukh, Erivan, and other cities and citizens of Aran seceded from him due to the gravity of kharaj". (29) Thus, even during the life of Nadir Shah, regions of Azerbaijan ceased to submit to the central government and the foundations of the future independent of Iran Azerbaijani khanates began to be laid. The strengthening of this process after the death of Nadir Shah (June 19, 1847) led to the elimination of long Iranian domination and the creation of a half dozen khanates: "... in the middle of the XVIII century on the territory of Azerbaijan 17 khanates were formed, small, but independent of the the central government of the Shah in Iran. They are all located within the historic lands of Azerbaijan from Iran to the boundaries of the Greater Caucasus mountain in the north and to the borders of the Sultan's Turkey, Armenia and eastern Georgia in the west to the western shores of the Caspian Sea. ... All these Khanates were generally based by sons of noble Azerbaijani feudal lords who led generations of some tribes." (30)It should be emphasized that the success of the formation of the Azerbaijani khanates was also contributed to by the struggle that erupted for the Iranian throne between the heirs of the Shah Nadir, which lasted nearly 10 years (1748-1758). Thus, it was a very important period in the history of Azerbaijan from the middle of the XVIII century, when the country became independent, while performing at the historic arena not as a unitary state, being politically fragmented into several independent and semi-dependent khanates". (31) However, these few decades (more than half a century) may be considered as a state operation of the Azerbaijani khanates, which included the Shaki, Karabakh, Quba, Shirvan, Baku, Nakhchivan, Ganja, Derbent, Tabriz, Sarab, Ardebil, Khoy, Urmia, Karadagh, Talysh, Maragha, and Maku khanates. As a small state, associations emerged with the Qutqashen, Kabalin, Arash, Kazakh, Shamshad, Ilisu sultanates. To the north-west of the latter, Jar Belokany societies were located. However, the absence of a single economic center in the second half of the XVIII century in Azerbaijan, the quite close existence of separate areas, the desire of the majority of local feudal lords - khans, sultans, Meliks, Beks to care only about their own independence and their interest in the preservation of feudal fragmentation strongly hindered unification of the country and the creation of centralized power. The history of almost all the khanates of Azerbaijan is full of incessant wars and palace coups. The most powerful khanates at this time were Urmia, Shaki, Karabakh, Quba, and Khoy. It is no coincidence that the strongest persons seeking to unite Azerbaijan under their rule came out of the rulers of these khanates, which was an extremely important event in the political life of Azerbaijan of the second half of the XVIII century. Such a prominent political figure in the south was the founder of Urmia Khanate, Fatali khan Afshar, and in the north, Fatali Khan of Quba (1736-1789). During the reign of Fatali khan (1758-1789), son of Hussein Ali khan, who came to power after the death of his father, the role and importance of the Quba Khanate in the history of Azerbaijan increased dramatically. In the 1760-1780s he was able to unite the north-eastern lands of Azerbaijan - after more than a decade (1757-1768) he joined the Salyan, Derbent, Baku and Shamakhi Khanates. Shaki Khanate soon found itself in a state of dependence on the Quba Khanate, which in the late 60s of the XVIII century became one of the most powerful khanates, which united large parts of Azerbaijani lands within one state. So by this time the boundaries of the Quba Khanate touched with the boundaries of the Talysh in the south, Shaki in the west and with the Karabakh khanate in the south-west. (32)However, the restoration of the northeastern association of Azerbaijan did not suit not only the immediate opponents of Fatali khan - Qaytaq utsmiy Amir Hamza, Shamakhi Aghasi Khan, Karabakh Ibrahimkhalil khan and the ruler of Kartli-Kakhetiya Erekle II, but the central shah's government of Iran in the face of Kerim Khan Zend, the representative of the Persian Zend dynasty, who conquered his rivals in 1763, and re-united Iran. As can be seen from sources, Kerim Khan Zend through Gilan Hidayat Khan sent to "Fatali Khan his deputies with news ... that Fatali Khan will be his nobleman envoy if he will retreat from Russia" (33). The mention of Russia was not accidental, because it was aware of the substantial assistance of the Russian troops, who provided strong support for Fatali Khan in the hardest period for him and together with the Cubans took an active part in the battle with the Dagestanis for the lifting of the siege of Derbent (1774). Probably, Kerim Khan Zend repeatedly made similar offers, as was evidenced by Fatali Khan: "Kerim Khan, who is now the master of the whole of Iran, sent to me a few deputies with gifts from the capital city of Shiraz ... and great penalty with the intention to persuade me to his service, but I ...did not accept it." (34) This failure turned with newly unfolded military actions against Fatali Khan, which were attended by his opponents among the Azerbaijani khanates. However, the death of Karim Khan Zend in 1779 led to a new weakening of the central government in Iran and the Iranian state collapsed again. Among those who did not recognize the authority of Zend was a representative of the Qajar, Agha Mohammad Khan, who when consolidating his power in Mazandaran, began to distribute it to the northern provinces of Iran and firstly he attacked the Gilan Khanate. Displaced from his possession, Hidayat Khan of Gilan took refuge with Fatali Khan of Quba, and asked for his help. Fatali Khan organized a campaign to Gilan in the spring of 1781. This campaign was notable for the fact that for the first time in the war against a challenger to the Shah throne of Qajar, military forces and units from almost all parts of Azerbaijan - Quba, Derbent, Baku, Shamakhi, Dzhevad, Shaki, Karabakh, and the Talysh and Ardebil khanates - united. The campaign was also attended by troops of Shamkhalate of Tarki and Qaytaq utsmiy... According to sources of that time, "all of the troops were gathered largely through the efforts of Fatali Khan, and overall command was exercised by the Quba leader, Mirza Beg Bayat." (35)

It should be emphasized that the success of the formation of the Azerbaijani khanates was also contributed to by the struggle that erupted for the Iranian throne between the heirs of the Shah Nadir, which lasted nearly 10 years (1748-1758). Thus, it was a very important period in the history of Azerbaijan from the middle of the XVIII century, when the country became independent, while performing at the historic arena not as a unitary state, being politically fragmented into several independent and semi-dependent khanates". (31) However, these few decades (more than half a century) may be considered as a state operation of the Azerbaijani khanates, which included the Shaki, Karabakh, Quba, Shirvan, Baku, Nakhchivan, Ganja, Derbent, Tabriz, Sarab, Ardebil, Khoy, Urmia, Karadagh, Talysh, Maragha, and Maku khanates. As a small state, associations emerged with the Qutqashen, Kabalin, Arash, Kazakh, Shamshad, Ilisu sultanates. To the north-west of the latter, Jar Belokany societies were located. However, the absence of a single economic center in the second half of the XVIII century in Azerbaijan, the quite close existence of separate areas, the desire of the majority of local feudal lords - khans, sultans, Meliks, Beks to care only about their own independence and their interest in the preservation of feudal fragmentation strongly hindered unification of the country and the creation of centralized power. The history of almost all the khanates of Azerbaijan is full of incessant wars and palace coups. The most powerful khanates at this time were Urmia, Shaki, Karabakh, Quba, and Khoy. It is no coincidence that the strongest persons seeking to unite Azerbaijan under their rule came out of the rulers of these khanates, which was an extremely important event in the political life of Azerbaijan of the second half of the XVIII century. Such a prominent political figure in the south was the founder of Urmia Khanate, Fatali khan Afshar, and in the north, Fatali Khan of Quba (1736-1789). During the reign of Fatali khan (1758-1789), son of Hussein Ali khan, who came to power after the death of his father, the role and importance of the Quba Khanate in the history of Azerbaijan increased dramatically. In the 1760-1780s he was able to unite the north-eastern lands of Azerbaijan - after more than a decade (1757-1768) he joined the Salyan, Derbent, Baku and Shamakhi Khanates. Shaki Khanate soon found itself in a state of dependence on the Quba Khanate, which in the late 60s of the XVIII century became one of the most powerful khanates, which united large parts of Azerbaijani lands within one state. So by this time the boundaries of the Quba Khanate touched with the boundaries of the Talysh in the south, Shaki in the west and with the Karabakh khanate in the south-west. (32)

However, the restoration of the northeastern association of Azerbaijan did not suit not only the immediate opponents of Fatali khan - Qaytaq utsmiy Amir Hamza, Shamakhi Aghasi Khan, Karabakh Ibrahimkhalil khan and the ruler of Kartli-Kakhetiya Erekle II, but the central shah's government of Iran in the face of Kerim Khan Zend, the representative of the Persian Zend dynasty, who conquered his rivals in 1763, and re-united Iran. As can be seen from sources, Kerim Khan Zend through Gilan Hidayat Khan sent to "Fatali Khan his deputies with news ... that Fatali Khan will be his nobleman envoy if he will retreat from Russia" (33). The mention of Russia was not accidental, because it was aware of the substantial assistance of the Russian troops, who provided strong support for Fatali Khan in the hardest period for him and together with the Cubans took an active part in the battle with the Dagestanis for the lifting of the siege of Derbent (1774). Probably, Kerim Khan Zend repeatedly made similar offers, as was evidenced by Fatali Khan: "Kerim Khan, who is now the master of the whole of Iran, sent to me a few deputies with gifts from the capital city of Shiraz ... and great penalty with the intention to persuade me to his service, but I ...did not accept it." (34) This failure turned with newly unfolded military actions against Fatali Khan, which were attended by his opponents among the Azerbaijani khanates. However, the death of Karim Khan Zend in 1779 led to a new weakening of the central government in Iran and the Iranian state collapsed again. Among those who did not recognize the authority of Zend was a representative of the Qajar, Agha Mohammad Khan, who when consolidating his power in Mazandaran, began to distribute it to the northern provinces of Iran and firstly he attacked the Gilan Khanate. Displaced from his possession, Hidayat Khan of Gilan took refuge with Fatali Khan of Quba, and asked for his help. Fatali Khan organized a campaign to Gilan in the spring of 1781. This campaign was notable for the fact that for the first time in the war against a challenger to the Shah throne of Qajar, military forces and units from almost all parts of Azerbaijan - Quba, Derbent, Baku, Shamakhi, Dzhevad, Shaki, Karabakh, and the Talysh and Ardebil khanates - united. The campaign was also attended by troops of Shamkhalate of Tarki and Qaytaq utsmiy... According to sources of that time, "all of the troops were gathered largely through the efforts of Fatali Khan, and overall command was exercised by the Quba leader, Mirza Beg Bayat." (35)

According to Azerbaijani historian A.S. Sumbatzadeh: "Such a representative composition of the participants of the campaign in Gilan convincingly demonstrated the extent of maturity of conscience and the feeling of unity of the Azerbaijanis in the fight against the Shah's Iran" and, animated by the "victory at Gilan, Fatali Khan decided to realized his old plan of adjoining at least part of the southern Azerbaijani khanates to the association he had created" (36).

In spring 1784 he organized a campaign to Ardebil, taking the city in May, also capturing Meshkin and moving south-west. However, Fatali Khan's plans failed because his attempt encountered resistance from powerful Azerbaijan khans, King heracleus II of Georgia, a set of Dagestani rulers and, most importantly, the Russian government. Fatali Khan could not know about the existence of the secret project of Prince Potemkin Tavrichesky, "to use the commotion in Persia to take over Baku and Derbent, call annexed Gilan Albania for the future heritage of Great Prince Constantine Pavlovich" (37).

In the late 80s, Agha Muḥammad Khan Qajar started taking the lead in the struggle for the shah's crown. He sent letters to Fatali Khan of Quba and Heraclius II, demanding that they recognize his power and break all ties with Russia. The two most powerful political figures of the Trans-Caucasus, who had spent about 30 years in a state of confrontation, signed a treaty in 1787 to aid each other in case Iran and Turkey attacked. Thereafter, Fatali Khan and his allies were successfully fighting off attacks of Agha Muḥammad Khan Qajar on the Trans-Caucasus in Southern Azerbaijan. In March 1789 Fatali Khan died in the apogee of glory and power of his association in the northeastern part of Azerbaijan. A.S. Sumbatadze emphasizes three lines characterizing the achievements of Fatali Khan of Quba: "Firstly, the uncompromising fight for the separation of Azerbaijan from Iran and the formation of a single Azerbaijani state; secondly, the clear, evident dissociation from the Sultan's Turkey and, finally, thirdly, the unchanging commitment to the alliance and friendship with Russia" (38). The political figure of Fatali Khan of Quba went far beyond the extent of his inherited Khanate Quba from the very first years of his reign. The khanate became an expression of the striving of the forming Azerbaijani nation, he became an outstanding political and state figure of Azerbaijan in the second half of the 18th century. It is noteworthy that the political history of the Quba Khanate under the rule of Fatali Khan was the most bright in the history of the region, it was the most peaceful and stable period for the peaceful population of Quba and most of the territory under his control, despite numerous raids and military campaigns. Being well-protected, the population was given a break from the endless wars and devastating occupations. It must be emphasized that all official documents made during Fatali Khan's reign in the northeastern association were in the Azerbaijani language, which was the state language. Fatali Khan's sons Ahmed Khan (1789-1791) and Shikh Ali Khan (1791-1810) failed to keep the high status and independence of power, the Azerbaijani structure formed by their father around the Quba Khanate disintegrated.

21. Farzalibekov S.F. History of Quba. p. 39
22. Abdullayev G.B. Azerbaijan in the 18th century and its Relations with Russia. Baku, 1965, p. 89
23. Ibid.
24. Dalili K. A. Southern Khanates of Azerbaijan..., p. 16 (in Azer. lang.)
25. History of Iran from Ancient Times to the 18th Century. L. 1958, p. 302
26. Sumbatzadeh A.S. Azerbaijanis - Ethnogenesis and Formation of the Nation..., p. 245
27. Farzalibekov S.F. History of Quba..., p. 42 (in Azer. lang.)
28. Abdullayev G.B. Azerbaijan in the 18th century and its Relations with Russia..., p. 192
29. Aliyev F.M. Anti-Iranian Protests and the Fight against Turkish Occupation in Azerbaijan in the First Half of the 18th Century. Baku, 1975, p. 216
30. Sumbatzadeh A.S. Azerbaijanis - Ethnogenesis and Formation of the Nation..., p. 247
31. Aliyev F.M. Azerbaijan in the 18th Century. In the book: Historical Geography of Azerbaijan, Baku, 1987, p. 133.
32. Abdullayev G.B. From the History of Northeastern Azerbaijan in the 60-80s of the 18th Century. Baku, 1958, p. 36-52
33. Abdullayev G.B. Azerbaijan in the 18th Century and its Relations with Russia..., p. 558
34. Ibid
35. Abdullayev G.B. From the History of Northeastern Azerbaijan..., p. 102
36. Sumbatzadeh A.S. Azerbaijanis - Ethnogenesis and Formation of the Nation..., p. 255
37. Abdullayev G.V. From the History of Northeastern Azerbaijan..., p. 125; Pro memoria of A.V. Khrapovitsky\ Reading in the Emperor's History Society of Russian Ancients at the Moscow University. M., 1782, Book 2, p. 37
38. Sumbatzadeh A.S. Azerbaijanis - Ethnogenesis and Formation of the Nation..., p. 257